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   <TITLE>appendix C -- Differences Between Java and C/C++</TITLE>
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<H1><FONT COLOR=#FF0000>appendix C</FONT></H1>
<H1><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Differences Between Java and C/C++</FONT></B>
</H1>
<P>
<HR WIDTH="100%"></P>
<P>
<H3 ALIGN=CENTER><FONT COLOR="#000000"><FONT SIZE=+2>CONTENTS<A NAME="CONTENTS"></A>
</FONT></FONT></H3>


<UL>
<LI><A HREF="#ThePreprocessor" >The Preprocessor</A>
<LI><A HREF="#Pointers" >Pointers</A>
<LI><A HREF="#StructuresandUnions" >Structures and Unions</A>
<LI><A HREF="#Functions" >Functions</A>
<LI><A HREF="#MultipleInheritance" >Multiple Inheritance</A>
<LI><A HREF="#Strings" >Strings</A>
<LI><A HREF="#ThegotoStatement" >The goto Statement</A>
<LI><A HREF="#OperatorOverloading" >Operator Overloading</A>
<LI><A HREF="#AutomaticCoercions" >Automatic Coercions</A>
<LI><A HREF="#VariableArguments" >Variable Arguments</A>
<LI><A HREF="#CommandLineArguments" >Command-Line Arguments</A>
<LI><A HREF="#Summary" >Summary</A>
</UL>
<HR>
<P>
It is no secret that the Java language is highly derived from
the C and C++ languages. Because C++ is currently one of the more
popular game programming languages, it is important to understand
the aspects of C++ that Java inherits. Of possibly even more importance
are the aspects of C++ that Java doesn't support. Because Java
is an entirely new language, it was possible for the language
architects at Sun to pick and choose which features from C++ to
implement in Java and how to implement them.
<P>
The focus of this appendix is to point out the differences between
Java and C++. If you are a C++ programmer, you can appreciate
the differences between Java and C++. Even if you don't have any
C++ experience, you can gain some insight into the Java language
by understanding the C++ discrepancies that it clears up in its
implementation. If you have a C/C++ game you are thinking of porting
to Java, this appendix will help you sort out the major areas
to target in your porting efforts.
<P>
<CENTER><TABLE BORDERCOLOR=#000000 BORDER=1 WIDTH=80%>
<TR><TD><B>Note</B></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
Because C++ backwardly supports C, many of the differences pointed out in this appendix refer to C++, but inherently apply to C as well.</BLOCKQUOTE>

</TD></TR>
</TABLE></CENTER>
<P>
<H2><A NAME="ThePreprocessor"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>The
Preprocessor</FONT></B></A></H2>
<P>
All C/C++ compilers implement a stage of compilation known as
the preprocessor. Part of the responsibility of the C++ preprocessor
is to perform an intelligent search and replace on identifiers
that have been declared using the <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#define</FONT></TT>
or <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#typedef</FONT></TT> directives. Although
most advocators of C++ discourage this usage of the preprocessor,
which was inherited from C, it is still widely used by most C++
programmers. Most of the processor definitions in C++ are stored
in header files, which complement the actual source code files.
<P>
The problem with the preprocessor approach is that it provides
an easy way for programmers to inadvertently add unnecessary complexity
to a program. Many programmers using the <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#define</FONT></TT>
and <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#typedef</FONT></TT> directives end
up inventing their own sublanguage within the confines of a particular
project. This results in other programmers having to go through
the header files and sort out all of the <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#define</FONT></TT>
and <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#typedef</FONT></TT> information
to understand a program, which makes code maintenance and reuse
almost impossible. An additional problem with the preprocessor
approach is that it is very weak when it comes to type checking
and validation.
<P>
Java does not have a preprocessor. It provides similar functionality
(<TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#define</FONT></TT>, <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#typedef</FONT></TT>,
and so on) to that provided by the C++ preprocessor, but with
far more control. Constant data members are used in place of the
<TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#define</FONT></TT> directive, and class
definitions are used in lieu of the <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">#typedef</FONT></TT>
directive. The end result is that Java source code is much more
consistent and easier to read than C++ source code. Additionally,
Java programs don't use header files; the Java compiler builds
class definitions directly from the source code files, which contain
both class definitions and method implementations.
<H2><A NAME="Pointers"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Pointers</FONT></B></A>
</H2>
<P>
Most developers agree that the misuse of pointers causes the majority
of bugs in C/C++ programming. Put simply, when you have pointers,
you have the ability to trash memory. C++ programmers regularly
use complex pointer arithmetic to create and maintain dynamic
data structures. In return, C++ programmers spend a lot of time
hunting down complex bugs caused by their complex pointer arithmetic.
<P>
The Java language does not support pointers. Java provides similar
functionality by making heavy use of references. Java passes all
arrays and objects by reference. This approach prevents common
errors due to pointer mismanagement. It also makes programming
easier in a lot of ways because the correct usage of pointers
is easily misunderstood by all but the most seasoned programmers.
<P>
You might be thinking that the lack of pointers in Java will keep
you from being able to implement many data structures such as
dynamic arrays. The reality is that any pointer task can be carried
out just as easily, and more reliably, with objects and arrays
of objects. You then benefit from the security provided by the
Java runtime system; it performs boundary checking on all array
indexing operations.
<H2><A NAME="StructuresandUnions"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Structures
and Unions</FONT></B></A></H2>
<P>
C++ has three types of complex data types: classes, structures,
and unions. Java only implements one of these data types: classes.
Java forces programmers to use classes when the functionality
of structures and unions is desired. Although this sounds like
more work for the programmer, it actually ends up being more consistent,
because classes can imitate structures and unions with ease. The
Java designers really wanted to keep the language simple, so it
only made sense to eliminate aspects of the language that overlapped.
<H2><A NAME="Functions"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Functions</FONT></B></A>
</H2>
<P>
In C, code is organized into functions, which are defaulted as
global subroutines accessible to a program. C++ added classes
and, in doing so, provided class methods, which are functions
that are connected to classes. C++ class methods are very similar
to Java class methods. However, because C++ still supports C,
nothing is discouraging C++ programmers from using functions.
This results in a mixture of function and method use that makes
for confusing programs.
<P>
Java has no functions. Being a more pure object-oriented language
than C++, Java forces programmers to bundle all routines into
class methods. No limitation is imposed by forcing programmers
to use methods instead of functions. As a matter of fact, implementing
routines as methods encourages programmers to better organize
code. Keep in mind that, strictly speaking, nothing is wrong with
the procedural approach of using functions; it just doesn't mix
well with the object-oriented paradigm that defines the core of
Java.
<H2><A NAME="MultipleInheritance"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Multiple
Inheritance</FONT></B></A></H2>
<P>
Multiple inheritance is a feature of C++ that enables you to derive
a class from multiple parent classes. Although multiple inheritance
is indeed powerful, it is complicated to use correctly and causes
lots of problems otherwise. It is also very complicated to implement
from the compiler perspective.
<P>
Java takes the high road and provides no direct support for multiple
inheritance. You can implement functionality similar to multiple
inheritance by using interfaces in Java. Java interfaces provide
object method descriptions, but contain no implementations.
<H2><A NAME="Strings"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Strings</FONT></B></A>
</H2>
<P>
C and C++ have no built-in support for text strings. The standard
technique adopted among C and C++ programmers is that of using
null-terminated arrays of characters to represent strings.
<P>
In Java, strings are implemented as first class objects (<TT><FONT FACE="Courier">String</FONT></TT>
and <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">StringBuffer</FONT></TT>), meaning
that they are at the core of the Java language. Java's implementation
of strings as objects provides several advantages:
<UL>
<LI>The manner in which you create strings and access the elements
of strings is consistent across all strings on all systems.
<LI>Because the Java string classes are defined as part of the
Java language, and not part of some extraneous extension, Java
strings function predictably every time.
<LI>The Java string classes perform extensive runtime checking,
which helps eliminate troublesome runtime errors.
</UL>
<H2><A NAME="ThegotoStatement"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>The
</FONT></B><TT><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000 FACE="Courier">goto</FONT></B></TT><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>
Statement</FONT></B></A></H2>
<P>
The dreaded <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">goto</FONT></TT> statement
is pretty much a relic these days even in C and C++, but it is
technically a legal part of the languages. The <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">goto</FONT></TT>
statement has historically been cited as the cause for messy,
impossible to understand, and sometimes even impossible to predict
code known as &quot;spaghetti code.&quot; The primary usage of
the <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">goto</FONT></TT> statement has merely
been as a convenience to substitute not thinking through an alternative,
more structured branching technique.
<P>
For all of these reasons and more, Java does not provide a <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">goto</FONT></TT>
statement. The Java language specifies <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">goto</FONT></TT>
as a keyword, but its usage is not supported. I suppose the Java
designers wanted to eliminate the possibility of even using <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">goto</FONT></TT>
as an identifier! Not including <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">goto</FONT></TT>
in the Java language simplifies the language and helps eliminate
the option of writing messy code.
<H2><A NAME="OperatorOverloading"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Operator
Overloading</FONT></B></A></H2>
<P>
Operator overloading, which is considered a prominent feature
in C++, is not supported in Java. Although roughly the same functionality
can be implemented by classes in Java, the convenience of operator
overloading is still missing. However, in defense of Java, operator
overloading can sometimes become very tricky. Undoubtedly the
Java developers decided not to support operator overloading in
order to keep the Java language as simple as possible.
<H2><A NAME="AutomaticCoercions"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Automatic
Coercions</FONT></B></A></H2>
<P>
<I>Automatic coercion</I> refers to the implicit casting of data
types that sometimes occurs in C and C++. For example, in C++
you are allowed to assign a <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">float</FONT></TT>
value to an <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">int</FONT></TT> variable,
which can result in a loss of information. Java does not support
C++ style automatic coercions. In Java, if a coercion will result
in a loss of data, you must always explicitly cast the data element
to the new type.
<H2><A NAME="VariableArguments"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Variable
Arguments</FONT></B></A></H2>
<P>
C and C++ allow you to declare functions that take a variable
number of arguments, such as <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">printf</FONT></TT>.
Although this is a convenient feature, it is impossible for the
compiler to thoroughly type check the arguments, which means problems
can arise at runtime without you knowing it. Again, Java takes
the high road and doesn't support variable arguments at all.
<H2><A NAME="CommandLineArguments"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Command-Line
Arguments</FONT></B></A></H2>
<P>
The command-line arguments passed from the system into a Java
program differ in a couple of ways from the command-line arguments
passed into a C++ program. First, the number of parameters passed
differs between the two languages. In C and C++, the system passes
two arguments to a program: <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">argc</FONT></TT>
and <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">argv</FONT></TT>. <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">argc</FONT></TT>
specifies the number of arguments stored in <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">argv</FONT></TT>.
<TT><FONT FACE="Courier">argv</FONT></TT> is a pointer to an array
of characters containing the actual arguments. In Java, the system
passes a single value to a program: <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">args</FONT></TT>.
<TT><FONT FACE="Courier">args</FONT></TT> is an array of <TT><FONT FACE="Courier">Strings</FONT></TT>
that contains the command-line arguments.
<P>
In C and C++, the command-line arguments passed into a program
include the name used to invoke the program. This name always
appears as the first argument, and it is rarely ever used. In
Java, you already know the name of the program because it is the
same name as the class, so there is no need to pass this information
as a command-line argument. Therefore, the Java runtime system
only passes the arguments following the name that invoked the
program.
<H2><A NAME="Summary"><B><FONT SIZE=5 COLOR=#FF0000>Summary</FONT></B></A>
</H2>
<P>
You learned in this appendix about the differences between Java
and C++. Although no knowledge of C++ is required for Java game
programming, it can certainly be beneficial to understand where
Java inherits many of its features.
<P>
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